GLOSSARY

AMPK Signaling describes downstream responses associated with AMPK.

AMPK, mTOR and related pathways integrate energy, amino-acid and other information; these proteins are not circulating hormones themselves. Components have different roles and tissue-dependent responses. A brief rise in an anabolic marker is not equivalent to guaranteed muscle gain. Effective training, adequate energy and protein and recovery opportunity are needed alongside molecular signaling for real outcomes rather than judging success from pathway activation alone.

Cellular sensors receive information about energy, nutrients and mechanical loading, and signaling networks coordinate responses. These signals are not all hormones, and activation of one marker does not guarantee greater muscle growth or performance. Practical interpretation requires the signal's magnitude and duration, target tissue, actual nutrient supply and measured outcomes during training and recovery to be considered together rather than treating one molecular response as the final result.

Nuclear receptors, transcription factors and coactivators participate in gene regulation but have distinct roles. A coactivator such as PGC-1α is not itself a PPAR receptor. NAD-dependent enzymes also differ from appetite hormones. A stronger experimental signal does not prove rejuvenation, fat loss or supplement benefit; tissue, stimulation duration and human outcomes must be established rather than inferring practical value from a molecular name or association.