GLOSSARY

TGF-β Receptor–SMAD Signaling
TGF-beta receptors activate SMAD2/3-related signaling through receptor serine/threonine kinase activity.

Local growth-factor networks. Growth factors influence proliferation, differentiation, survival and extracellular matrix remodeling through receptor-specific pathways. Their actions depend on tissue state, dose, timing and interactions with other signals. More signaling is not automatically equivalent to better repair or functional adaptation.

Interpreting the mechanism. Additional pathways and tissue context influence remodeling, immune regulation and fibrosis.

From pathway to performance. Circulating concentrations and phosphorylation markers do not directly quantify local tissue regeneration. Evidence for a proposed exercise benefit should link the relevant tissue signal with meaningful structural or functional outcomes, while distinguishing human findings from experimental models.